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White-faced storm petrel

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White-faced storm petrel
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Procellariiformes
Family: Oceanitidae
Genus: Pelagodroma
Reichenbach, 1853[2]
Species:
P. marina
Binomial name
Pelagodroma marina
(Latham, 1790)
Distribution map of the species
Synonyms
  • Procellaria marina Latham, 1790[3]

The white-faced storm petrel (Pelagodroma marina), (Māori: takahikare)[4] also known as white-faced petrel or frigate petrel is a small seabird of the austral storm petrel family Oceanitidae.[5][6] It is the only member of the monotypic genus Pelagodroma.[7] It is widely distributed across the southern hemisphere, especially around the coastal and open ocean waters of southern Australia, New Zealand and Tristan da Cunha [6][8]

Subspecies and The Distributions

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Here are six recognised subspecies, breeding in island colonies through subtropical to subantarctic regions of the Atlantic, Indian and south-western Pacific Oceans in both hemisphere:[9][10][11]

Description

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Commonly, the white-faced storm petrel is 19 to 21 centimetres (7.5 to 8.3 in) in length with a 41 to 44 centimetres (16 to 17 in) wingspan and 40 to 70 grams body mass.[18] It has a pale brown to grey back, rump and wings with black flight feathers.[19] It is white below, unlike other north Atlantic petrels, and has a white face with a black eye mask like a phalarope. Its distinctive grey-brown dorsal side plumage makes it one of the easier petrels to identify at sea from a distance. Both sexes of this frigate petrel have similar plumage with no seasonal variation[6].

However, certain subspecies exhibit subtle differences such as a subspecies on the Kermedec Islands, P. m. albiclunis has white upper tail coverts instead of the usual grey that make them highly distinct[20]. This subspecies and P. m. dulciae are very similar in appearance, with the main distinguishing feature being the colour of the rump. P. m. albiclunis has a whitish rump meanwhile P. m. dulciae and P. m. maoriana have pale grey rumps[21]. Furthermore, P. m albiclunis have a bit smaller dimensions compared to those of P. m. dulciae. However, both of them display square tails and whitier face and breast sides than P. m. maoriana [20].

In contrast, the white-faced storm petrel from New Zealand, P. m. maoriana has forked tail, characterized by the dark patches on the sides of the breast. It also has shorter culmen, tarsus and middle toe lengths with claw than other North Atlantic counterparts like P. m. dulciae and P. m. albiclunis. They also have longer tail than the average of other subspecies[21].

Behaviour

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The white-faced storm petrel is strictly pelagic outside the breeding season, and this, together with its often-remote breeding sites, makes this petrel a difficult bird to see from land. Only in severe storms might this species be pushed into headlands. There have been a handful of western Europe records from France, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. It has a direct gliding flight and will patter on the water surface as it picks planktonic food items from the ocean surface. It is highly gregarious, but does not follow ships.[6] Like most petrels, its walking ability is limited to a short shuffle to the burrow.

Breeding

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Egg - MHNT

The white-faced storm petrel breeds on remote islands in the south Atlantic, such as Tristan da Cunha and also Australia and New Zealand.[22][23] There are north Atlantic colonies on the Cape Verde Islands, Canary Islands and Savage Islands.[6] It nests in dense colonies close to the sea in rock crevices and lays a single white egg.[19] It spends the rest of the year at sea. It is strictly nocturnal at the breeding sites to avoid predation by gulls and skuas, and will even avoid coming to land on clear moonlit nights.

The breeding period varies slightly between regions. In Australia, the breeding cycle of white-faced storm petrel aligns closely with those in New Zealand

Breeding cycle of different subspecies of White-faced storm petrel
Subspecies Colony area Return to colony Egg laying Period Hatching period Incubation Period Fledging Period Fledging Duration Total breeding period Notable observations
P. m. albiclunis Kermadec Islands August Mid-August to mid-late-September in southern hemisphere Late September to early November Early November and ended in October[24] (55 days)[8] Fledglings may depart late November to early January[24] Unknown Late May to December - confirmkan balik[24] Kermadec Islands located in a warm ocean current account for earlier breeding based on latitude
P. m. dulciae Mud Islands, Victoria Early September End-October to mid-December[8] (mean = 11 November)[14] Mid-December to end-December (mean = 24 December) (51.7 days) Early to end-February (last chick to departure = 11 March) over 31 days September to mid-March (6 and a half months)[14] - 54% eggs success hatched

- 14% lost - 32% were abandoned or possibly infertile - 77.8% fledged successfully - This breeding period in Australia appeared to be more coordinated than other regions[14]

P. m. eadesi Cape Verde Islands[25] November[26] Late January to March[16] Mid May to July
P. m. hypoleuca Savage Islands or Salvagens Islands[25] Mid December March to April [16][27] (mean = 17 March) Mid-May to mid-June (53.7 days) Mid-July to mid-August (last chick to departure = mid August) 60.3 days Mid-December to mid-August (9 months) [27][14] Some pairs took 30% longer incubation period causes from neglected egg[27]
P. m. maoriana Whero Island, New Zealand[28] Mid-September (Late October to late December) mean = 16 November Late-December to early February (mean = January) (~50 days) Mid-February to early-April [8] 54 days Mid-September to mid- April[29][28]
P. m. marina Tristan da Cunha[25] August to September[25] Late December to January[30][25]

Migratory

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P. m. dulciae

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Those that breed on islands from Western Australia to New South Wales mostly migrate north-west to the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean, while the migration routes of eastern colonies remain unclear[31][32][21]

P. m. eadesi

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This subspecies of white-faced storm petrels that breed in Cape Verde shows distinct migratory pattern from previous studies. After the breeding season, they were travelling clockwise in May and June to the northwest Atlantic and then returning back to Cabo Verde or Cape Verde in October and November through the northeast[26]. Then, the birds spent the non breading season in regions connected to seamounts along the mid-Atlantic Ridge and south of the Azores[26].

Interestingly, during the non-breeding season, the species is most active at night, indicating that it benefits from the diel-vertical migration of seamount-associated nekton and zooplankton. Additionally, because of the decreased capacity to fly during the moulting season, the amount of time spent on the water before returning to the colony increased[26].

Foraging

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White-faced Storm Petrels described as surface foragers because they often seen pattering on the water by stretching out their wings and using their long legs to lightly touch the water surface while maintaining flight.[33] The use of pattering is significant in this Oceanitidae family but this species pattering almost all the time than other petrels.[7] However, during strong wind, they move like pendulum by swinging side-to-side using their feet to push off the water and they will glide quickly across the water with stiff wings and one leg lowered when moving between feeding spots.[6] They mainly travel for significant distances to forage, covering up to 400 km from their breeding colony.[34] Observations recorded from ships indicate that they generally forage over continental shelves while sometimes venturing near the African coast and Canary Islands, particularly during chick rearing due to high productivity.[34][35] During incubation, the foraging trips average around 5.1 days with more than 700 km total distance covered by this species. Meanwhile, during chick rearing, trips shorten to 3 days covering approximately 578 km to ensure consistent feeding for their chicks.[34]

Diet

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These white-faced petrels are opportunistic feeders in which they could consume a diverse array of prey based on availability.[33] Studies at the Chatham Islands found the white-face feed on a wide range of krill, amphipods, planktonic crustaceans, and small fish.[33][36] Mesopelagic fish is one of their diet preferences to consume especially from Myctophidae family (FO = 71%) in the Pacific and North Atlantic.[33][37] Meanwhile, the second biggest group diet are cephalopods (FO = 24%), most of which come from Mastigoteuthis magna species. In addition, example of crustaceans they eat are from Hyperiidea and crab megalops.[34] The majority of prey is from the surface while flying or pattering, but occasionally while resting on the surface.[38]

Diseases

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White-faced storm petrels are affected by a trematode Syncoelium filiferum, which uses the krill species Nematoscelis megalops as an intermediate host. The petrels appear to be an accidental or dead-end host for the larvae of the trematode, which need to attach themselves to the gill filaments of near-surface fish to continue their life cycle.[39] Metacercariae[40] of S. filiferum attach using sticky filaments reaching 60 millimetres (2.4 in) long,[39] which adhere to the legs of the petrel and subsequently dry out as the petrels leave the water, resulting in trematode death.[39] The petrels can become caught in vegetation and die. This phenomenon has been described among white-faced storm petrel populations in the Chatham Islands,[40] where it reportedly causes mortality epidemics.[39] The trematode larvae also attach to the legs of fairy prions but do not often cause bridging leg connections in that species.[39]

Status and conservation

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Widespread throughout its large range, the white-faced storm petrel is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species[1]. However, certain regional populations have experienced significant declines due to habitat changes and other environmental pressures.

Mud Islands (P. m. dulciae)

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The colony of white-faced storm petrels at Mud Islands located off the coast of Victoria, Australia has been a significant population decline over the last century. Changes in habitat, vegetation, increased pressures from other species, and human activity have all contributed to this decline. Below is the chronology happened to the decrease of Australian white faced storm petrel;

  • Early 1900s: The vegetation of the White-faced Storm Petrel was characterised as having a succulent herbland with Bower Spinach (Tetragonia implexicoma) as the dominant plant[41]. During this time, the vegetation began to undergo significant changes [42].
  • 1928: The first population estimate recorded around 22,000 pairs of this subspecies on Mud Islands[43].
  • 1940s: By this period, Bower Spinach was no longer recorded on the islands, likely due to intense grazing pressure from European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cunciculus) which eliminated the species and resulted in low-lying vegetation and increased erosion [43]
  • 1958: The population dropped significantly to 10,000 pairs [43]
  • 1978: The most recent estimates of White-face Storm Petrel recorded was only 5,600 pairs indicating a continued decline[44].
  • Mid-1980s: European Rabbits were removed from the islands but significant habitat changes had already occurred[14]
  • 1990s: An increase in the number of other breeding bird species especially Silver Gulls (Larus novaehollandiae) and both Australian White Ibis (Threskiornis molucca) and Straw-necked Ibis (T. spinicollis) resulted in further changes to the vegetation composition of Mud Islands. This also led to increased phosphorus and nitrogen levels in the soil[45]. Moreover, there were other two species, Coast Saltbush (Atriplex cinerea) and Australian Hollyhock (Lavetera arborea) showed very high in distribution and became dominant within the colony of White-faced Storm Petrel[45].

Savage Islands (P. m. hypoleuca)

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For this subspecies, due to its restricted breeding range which primarily nests in the Salvages Archipelago in the North-east Atlantic, they are considered vulnerable and has been designated as "Species of European Conservation Concern"[46].

Potential Threats and Population Estimates

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  • Late 15th century: Same potential threats as previous subspecies, rabbits (Oryctolagus cunciculus) were introduced intentionally to the Salvages Archipelago when the islands were first discovered[47].
  • Unknown date: House mice (Mus musculus) have been presented on the islands for centuries was likely brought over unintentionally posed a significant threat to the breeding colonies[27]. Another concerning potential threats were the petrel predators that can prey on the storm petrel called Yellow-legged Gulls (Larus cachinnans), expanding in the population few years ago[48][49].

References

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  1. ^ a b BirdLife International (2018). "Pelagodroma marina". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22698453A132647873. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22698453A132647873.en. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
  2. ^ Reichenbach, L. (1852). Das natürliche System der Vögel. Dresden und Leipzig. p. IV.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ a b Latham, Joannis (1790). "Genus XCV. Procellaria". Index ornithologicus. Vol. 2. Londini: Sumptibus authoris. p. 826.
  4. ^ Whitehead, E.A.; Adams, N.; Baird, K.A.; Bell, E.A.; Borrelle, S.B.; Dunphy, B.J.; Gaskin, C.P.; Landers, T.J.; Rayner, M.J.; Russell, J.C. (May 2019). Threats to Seabirds of Northern Aotearoa New Zealand (PDF). Hauraki Gulf Forum. pp. 10–11.
  5. ^ Gillham, M (1963). "Breeding habitats of the White-faced Storm Petrel (Pelagodroma marina) in eastern Bass Strait". Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania. 97: 33–42. doi:10.26749/wtpz8105. ISSN 0080-4703.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Marchant, S.; Higgins, P. J (1990). "Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic birds: v.1: Ratites to ducks (Pt. A & B)". Choice Reviews Online. 29 (6): 263–264. doi:10.5860/choice.29-3307. ISSN 0009-4978.
  7. ^ a b Hoyo, Josep del; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Cabot, José, eds. (1992). Handbook of the birds of the world. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 978-84-87334-10-8.
  8. ^ a b c d e Richdale, L. E. (December 1965). "Biology of the birds of Whero Island, New Zealand, with special reference to the Diving Petrel and the White‐faced Storm Petrel: Breeding behaviour of the Narrow‐billed Prion and the Broad‐billed Prion on Whero Island, New Zealand". The Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. 31 (1): 1–86. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1965.tb00364.x. ISSN 0084-5620.
  9. ^ Handbook of the birds of the world: orders Falconiformes and Galliformes. Barcelona: Lynx edicions. 1994. ISBN 978-84-87334-15-3.
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  34. ^ a b c d Alho, Maria; Catry, Paulo; Silva, Mónica C.; Nunes, Vera L.; Granadeiro, José P. (2022-06-18). "Revealing the foraging movements and diet of the White-faced Storm Petrel Pelagodroma marina in the NE Atlantic". Marine Biology. 169 (7): 91. Bibcode:2022MarBi.169...91A. doi:10.1007/s00227-022-04078-z. ISSN 1432-1793.
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  40. ^ a b Claugher, D. (1976). "A trematode associated with the death of the white-faced storm petrel (Pelagodroma marina) on the Chatham Islands". Journal of Natural History. 10 (6): 633–641. Bibcode:1976JNatH..10..633C. doi:10.1080/00222937600770501.
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  49. ^ Zino, F. and M. J. Biscoito. 1994. Breeding seabirds in the Madeira archipelago. Pages 172-185 in Seabirds on islands: threats, case studies and action plans (D. N. Nettleship,J. Burger and M. Gochfeld, Eds.). BirdLife Conservation Series No.1, BirdLife Interna- tional, Cambridge
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